New York Police Department Recruitment and Challenges

Thesis StatementSome of this is funny†¦most of it, if accurate, is outrageous. While some of the latter is verifiable, it is difficult to sort out just how much is simply sour grapes and whining because 40 miles to the East, Suffolk Country MOS have a huge contract. New York Police Department cannot get enough applicants to give a test for Police officers 88% of Port Authority Police Department Academy graduates are from New York Police Department cops, 50% of a new class of NYFD class are from New York Police Department. (Lung Worthy et al, 1986).IntroductionThe New York City Police (NYPD) has over the last years been known to be the largest municipal police force in the world with a vital primary responsibility to enforce the law and carry out investigations within the five boroughs of the New York City, which include Nassau, Suffolk, Westchester etc. (Fred. M. Rafilson, 2000).NYPD is dedicated to work towards enhancing the quality of life in the city by working in accordance to the constitution. This is achieved through its mission statement, which is â€Å"Enforce the law, preserve the peace, reduce fear and provide for a safe environment†. (Fred. M. Rafilson, 2000). This in result entails to preventing fear and responding to crime.In the United States, NYPD is considered as being the first modern style police department being an array of specialized services. It is contracted and dedicated to offering expertise in technical operations, K-9, diving or marine skills, aviation or helicopter skills, bomb disposal technology, counterterrorism technology, intelligence skills, antigang techniques, narcotics detection, public transportation, control and public housing. The NYPD has extensive crime scene investigations and laboratory resources while not also overlooking their units, which assist with computer crime investigations. (Fred. M. Rafilson, 2000)Recruitment Requirements for NYPDTo pace afoot into the NYPD academy, the following requirements ar e a prerequisite: one must be an United States citizen at the time of application; one must possess a valid high school diploma or an educational equivalent; one must have successfully completed either sixty (60) college credits from a credible college or a university with at least 2.0 GPA or two (2) years full time United States Military Service. (Reaves, Brian A., 1996).However, one could achieve the above qualifications yet be disqualified for admission because of the following factors: – One may have been convicted of an offence, which indicates lack of good moral character, or disposition towards violence or disorder or which is punishable by one or more years of imprisonment; one may have undergone repeated convictions of an offence, which indicates disrespect of the law; one may have been discharged from an employment as a result of poor behavior or inability to adjust to discipline; one may have been discharged in a dishonorable manner from the military service; one m ay have been convicted of an offence for domestic violence misdemeanor; and lastly, one may have been convicted for committing a felony. (Lung Worthy et al, 1986).A Practical SituationDespite all these requirements and all the theoretical expectations from these special, well-trained and skilled cops a great problem looms in their working circumstances. For any person to work there is always expectations of commensurate benefits from the field of occupation necessary for the daily upkeep of the individual and dependants. The standard of life should also have a direct relationship with the rightful inputs of an individual to the workplace.Future progress should also be projected by the current occupation performance and renumeration. Other workplace related benefits are also very crucial determinants of an employee wellbeing and welfare. All these issues if not properly addressed, will lead to decreased morale, decreased output and poor performance and ultimately high degree of emplo yees’ dropout leading to high turnovers.This is the critical condition facing the NYPD. In 2005, there was a state arbitration and a panel of judges’ decree covering a contract negotiation between NYPD representatives and state representatives, which came up with a pay decrease for new officers. The new outcomes have been discussed here: – On admission, a new hire during training is supposed to earn $25,100 per year. This continues for the next six (6) months. On the completion of the Police Academy, the respective individual becomes entitled to an annual salary increase up to $32,700. To explain this, the state argues that the salaries were adjusted as a result of inflation. In practice these figures are far much low below the living standards of an employed person and they happen to be the lowest pay levels in history for rookie NYPD cops.This was a wrong decision by the jurisdiction of lowering the starting pay for new officers at such a time that the officer s are most impressionable and this act seems particularly unwise to majority of the people. The salary plunge is blamed on state arbitrator and is seen as a bad public policy to reduce the starting salary. The union officers argued that the city first suggested lower starting salaries to fund the pay raises and arbitration was taken to because the city refused to negotiate across the table. The conventional wisdom when applied tends to purport an inverse relationship between salary and corruption as witnessed in the jurisdiction such as New Orleans. (Fred. M. Rafilson, 2000).The issue at hand is very crucial towards motivation of workers. A person of proper orientation cannot even dream or think about joining this career, which is devoid of motivation considering that there exists a high degree of risk in this profession. The situation is further compounded by the fact that out of the meangle pays, the respective officer is expected to purchase virtually all of their belongings and personal items. The items include officers’ uniforms and equipment, which one would expect to get from the Academy or employer. Some issues of quality items in this respect it is worth mentioning.Due to the fact of fluctuated pay anybody is highly tempted to go for the least expensive item and it is common sense that least expensive is least quality. The practice of officers buying uniforms and equipment for themselves has an outlay that can easily run into thousands of dollars. As a solution, the Municipal Union in 2007 through the Municipal Credit Union began issuing visa credit cards to the Police Academy as a way to borrow the money needed towards the mandatory equipment purchases.Top pay for experienced officers is no better compared with pay of other potential employers. The recommended top pay for an experienced NYPD officer is $59,588 not including overtime payments and other forms of compensation. The major contributor to these problems is the municipal funding agent s, which although it has continually funded other city project.The new basketball arena in Brooklyn got an approximate 8.3 acres land, which although it was a part of a forest the administration asserts that this is no land grabbing. For the sake of its development it got a further $100 million. (Kleining John, 1996). The Second Avenue Train line got the full funding agreement with a massive $2.5 bond issues and its work expected to follow within weeks to months. (Kleining John, 1996).The Mayor’s Green Plan is raising quite substantial amount whereby drivers are levied for entering Manhattan at rates of $8 for personal vehicles and $21 for truck operators. Major tugs of war have been evidently available as is the case of the New York Civil Liberties Union (NYCLU), which urged the council members to provide the Civilian Complaint Review Board (CCRB) with adequate funding and to hold it accountable for recent lapses in its performance. NYCLU decried to Mayor Bloomberg’s proposals to cut CCRB funding by $1.2 million eliminating twenty four investigator positions and urged the city council to restore the CCRB’s funding to demand cooperation from NYPD and other agencies involved in the civilian review process.The NYCLU was actively instrumental in the creation of the independent CCRB in the year 2002, and has been an outspoken advocate for a vigorous and independent civilian review system. As part of this effort, the NYCLU has fought CCRB budget cuts year after year and has been highly critical of NYPD efforts to undermine the CCRB’s work. (Kleining John, 1996). Whereas the policy makers and implementers argue that they are in favor of keeping tabs on the people suspected of unlawful activities, they argue that the police should not be scrutinizing law abiding New Yorkers’ activities without regulations.Low pay is driving more and more New York’s finest to leave the job despite ranks being bolstered. Especially in 2005 and 2006, 1,769 officers were reported to quit job before their retirement eligibility. (Kleining John, 1996). The numbers have had a real impact on the streets and city hall does not have the courage to solve the problem.Difficulties Compounding Police Force IssueSome extremely difficult times were experienced in the city brought about by the economic downturn of the 1970. An arson attack particularly plagued Bronx leading to permeability of an atmosphere of lawlessness in the city. In addition, the city’s financial crisis led to a hiring freeze on all city departments including the NYPD from 1976 to 1980. (Eli B. Silverman, 1990). A crack epidemic of late 1980s and early 1990s followed in suit the arson attack, which is believed most certainly led to the city’s homicide rate to soar to an all time higher. A marvelous record of murder, so great that it has yet remained difficult to break in any other US major city, was recorded in 1990. (Eli B. Silverman, 1990).The situat ion was further complicated by continuous thefts associated with drug addiction increasing became common. Furthermore, on September 11, 2001, twenty-three NYPD officers were killed when the World Trade Centre collapsed due to terrorist attack. More lives were lost that year than any other year in the NYPD’s history. (Eli B. Silverman, 1990).All through history, the NYPD has suffered from numerous allegations of corruption. However, as the many commissions of inquiry convened to inquire about these alleged matters, the results have shown these instances of corruption reflect far greater on the individual’s involved rather than do on a systemic form of corruption. As a matter of fact, the instances of corruption when compared through statistics to the sheer number of the departments as a whole, the NYPD actually has a lower corruption rate than many other departments.Most commissions on corruption blame low morale and chronically low salary as the large contributing fact or. As things sour up to such heights it remains questionable as to the destiny and way out for these unlucky officers. Information permeability is in place of existing training and working condition in other departments of equal capacity as the NYPD.Situation Outside NYPDIt is crystal clear that in nearby departments’ payments is considerably more ranging from $50,000 for new hires and over $90,000 for experienced officers. Over the last few years hundreds of NYPD city officers have been found to leave for higher paying jobs with other agencies notably the Nassau County Police Department, the Suffolk County Police Department and the Port Authority Police of New York and New Jersey. (Bratton et al, 1998). Discontent over pay issues has become so widespread and so well known that higher paying departments in the lower cost of living areas such as the Rochester New York Police are actively recruiting NYPD officers to join their forces.Large numbers of NYPD officers have also mi grated to the New York City Fire Departments where, although the payments are similar to that of NYPD, work schedules are more attractive and they are privileged to have a more amicable relationship with the public. (Bratton et al, 1998). However, the NYPD is not comfortable with the exodus taken by their trained employees. Resources have been used for the training and therefore the exodus is a big loss to NYPD. Employees’ turnover is also a bad influence facing NYPD as a result of this exodus.Therefore, to counteract the exodus, the NYPD is using contract changes to forbid the prior practice of allowing police officers who join the fire department to transfer their seniority for a compensation purposes. With all new firefighters now compelled to begin working at the same starting pay, the number of NYPD officials willing to exit over to the FDNY is likely to fall considerably. (Bratton et al, 1998).Some NYPD officers charge that the department leadership is seeking to stem t he flow of officers to other jurisdictions by administrative means. In January 2006, 35 NYPD officers seeking to move to the Port Authority Police sued the NYPD claiming that it was refusing to make their personal records available to Ports Authority Police Department (PAPD) background investigators. The plaintiffs won the injunction at the trial level but the appellate division in January 2007 overturned that ruling and ordered that case to trial. (James T. Hamilton, 2000). For its part, the NYPD claims that its actions are merely in line with the personnel practices of any other employers and that there is no â€Å"stealth† effort to prevent officers from moving elsewhere.Nonetheless, it is a fact that no NYPD officers have been included in the last PAPD Police Academy as a result of the deliberate confinement of their background records by their employer NYPD. Despite these obstacles, there are signs that the exodus from the NYPD may become accelerating. In 2006, 902 offic ers resigned before eligibility for retirement. The number had been 867 in the previous year (2005) and 635 in the other previous year (2004), which contributes for an attrition rate of around 2%. (James T. Hamilton, 2000).While the Police Commissioner Raymond Kelly insists that the figures compares positively with the turnover rates in private industry, police union officials note that the proper comparison should be with prior years on the NYPD records in past years. For example, in 1991 only 15% officers left early thus recording an attrition rate of less than one half of one percent. (James T. Hamilton, 2000).The unfair state in NYPD has impacted negative picture of the Academy. Recruits and skilled officers are expected to take care of their transport costs. They are also supposed to cater for costs of their duty belts, handcuffs, flashlights etc. whenever they wear out. The cost of maintaining fresh supplies has been uncatered for by the Academy. The supervisors treat recruits and officers like children and the harsh manner of the supervisors create disrespect in the Academy. Recruits are taken for field experience and during the occasion they are given up to supervisory jobs. Due to the frequent turnover some identified officers and recruits are forced to act on supervisory capacity without an extra pay.At the end of it all participation in unions is crippled due to crippled financial status. They are also incapacitated to play meaningful roles in the society and their background society issues are very poor.The potential recruit of NYPD should expect to earn the lowest pay while working in the most dangerous environment in the tri-state area and should also expect picayune disciplinary action with a trial room having nearly 100% conviction rate. Dozens of civilian complaints from criminals and then complaints are investigated by cop hating, democratic club hacks. The recruit should also expect to be a great â€Å"white defendant† seeking publici ty, grand-standing district attorney have their life ruined when they make a good faith mistake they become financially destroyed plus their families by paying huge money in legal fees.The cop expects the boss ever behind while executing duties, any civilian complaint with a controversial case falls on the cops shoulders. The supervisors of the cops are ready to protect politicians at the expense of their junior cops. The members of the department above the rank of lieutenant are ready to earn promotion through suppression of their juniors. The NYPD cop members are the most demoralized army group. They give protection to millions of liberal, unappreciative citizens and democratic officers who hate them.The cops are also vilified by phony ministers who command huge sums of government poverty money to aid and assist crime. The cops transcend through six months of training then in disquiets join other police departments leaving their leaders searching for reasons of the exodus. As seni or members of NYPD shift to other departments, such as Suffolk County Cop, a vacancy opening leaves a promotion slot quickly.ConclusionThe result of poor funding in NYPD is a poor social economic structure. This leads to exit and exodus of those who enter NYPD Academy leading to brain drain and employee turnover. The lack of funding has created a huge salary disparity between NYPD and other same category departments. Any well-qualified person fears any indulgence with NYPD. Although their entry requirements are well outlines, a number of recruits gain entry into the Academy without the possession of valid driving licenses, relevant credentials possibility of suffering some disqualifications creates problems of retention of probationary employees since discontent and lack of motivation is the cause of exodus to a better place.ReferencesBratton, William J. & Knobler Peter (1998) Turnaround: How American Top Cops Reversed the Crime Epidemic. New York: Random House.Eli B. Silverman (199 0) NYPD Battles Crime: Innovative Strategies in Policing. North Eastern University Press. ISBN-13:978-15555340011.Fred. M. Rafilson (2000) Police Officer Arco; 13th Ed. ISBN-13:978-0028637419.James T. Hamilton (2000) Channeling Violence. Princeton University Press. New Ed. ISBN-13:978-0691070247.Kleining John (1996) The Ethics of Policing. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Lung Worthy, Robert H. (1986) The Structure of Police Organizations. New York. Praeger.Reaves, Brian A. (1996) Local Police Departments. Diane Pub Co. ISBN-13:978-0788130076. New York Police Department Recruitment And Challenges Some of this is funny†¦most of it, if accurate, is outrageous. While some of the latter is verifiable, it is difficult to sort out just how much is simply sour grapes and whining because 40 miles to the East, Suffolk Country MOS have a huge contract. New York Police Department cannot get enough applicants to give a test for Police officers 88% of Port Authority Police Department Academy graduates are from New York Police Department cops, 50% of a new class of NYFD class are from New York Police Department. (Lung Worthy et al, 1986).IntroductionThe New York City Police (NYPD) has over the last years been known to be the largest municipal police force in the world with a vital primary responsibility to enforce the law and carry out investigations within the five boroughs of the New York City, which include Nassau, Suffolk, Westchester etc. (Fred. M. Rafilson, 2000).NYPD is dedicated to work towards enhancing the quality of life in the city by working in accordance to the constitut ion. This is achieved through its mission statement, which is â€Å"Enforce the law, preserve the peace, reduce fear and provide for a safe environment†. (Fred. M. Rafilson, 2000). This in result entails to preventing fear and responding to crime.In the United States, NYPD is considered as being the first modern style police department being an array of specialized services. It is contracted and dedicated to offering expertise in technical operations, K-9, diving or marine skills, aviation or helicopter skills, bomb disposal technology, counterterrorism technology, intelligence skills, antigang techniques, narcotics detection, public transportation, control and public housing. The NYPD has extensive crime scene investigations and laboratory resources while not also overlooking their units, which assist with computer crime investigations. (Fred. M. Rafilson, 2000)Recruitment Requirements for NYPDTo pace afoot into the NYPD academy, the following requirements are a prerequisite : one must be an United States citizen at the time of application; one must possess a valid high school diploma or an educational equivalent; one must have successfully completed either sixty (60) college credits from a credible college or a university with at least 2.0 GPA or two (2) years full time United States Military Service. (Reaves, Brian A., 1996).However, one could achieve the above qualifications yet be disqualified for admission because of the following factors: – One may have been convicted of an offence, which indicates lack of good moral character, or disposition towards violence or disorder or which is punishable by one or more years of imprisonment; one may have undergone repeated convictions of an offence, which indicates disrespect of the law; one may have been discharged from an employment as a result of poor behavior or inability to adjust to discipline; one may have been discharged in a dishonorable manner from the military service; one may have been con victed of an offence for domestic violence misdemeanor; and lastly, one may have been convicted for committing a felony. (Lung Worthy et al, 1986).A Practical SituationDespite all these requirements and all the theoretical expectations from these special, well-trained and skilled cops a great problem looms in their working circumstances. For any person to work there is always expectations of commensurate benefits from the field of occupation necessary for the daily upkeep of the individual and dependants. The standard of life should also have a direct relationship with the rightful inputs of an individual to the workplace. Future progress should also be projected by the current occupation performance and renumeration. Other workplace related benefits are also very crucial determinants of an employee wellbeing and welfare. All these issues if not properly addressed, will lead to decreased morale, decreased output and poor performance and ultimately high degree of employees’ dr opout leading to high turnovers.This is the critical condition facing the NYPD. In 2005, there was a state arbitration and a panel of judges’ decree covering a contract negotiation between NYPD representatives and state representatives, which came up with a pay decrease for new officers. The new outcomes have been discussed here: – On admission, a new hire during training is supposed to earn $25,100 per year. This continues for the next six (6) months. On the completion of the Police Academy, the respective individual becomes entitled to an annual salary increase up to $32,700. To explain this, the state argues that the salaries were adjusted as a result of inflation. In practice these figures are far much low below the living standards of an employed person and they happen to be the lowest pay levels in history for rookie NYPD cops.This was a wrong decision by the jurisdiction of lowering the starting pay for new officers at such a time that the officers are most impr essionable and this act seems particularly unwise to majority of the people. The salary plunge is blamed on state arbitrator and is seen as a bad public policy to reduce the starting salary. The union officers argued that the city first suggested lower starting salaries to fund the pay raises and arbitration was taken to because the city refused to negotiate across the table. The conventional wisdom when applied tends to purport an inverse relationship between salary and corruption as witnessed in the jurisdiction such as New Orleans. (Fred. M. Rafilson, 2000).The issue at hand is very crucial towards motivation of workers. A person of proper orientation cannot even dream or think about joining this career, which is devoid of motivation considering that there exists a high degree of risk in this profession. The situation is further compounded by the fact that out of the meangle pays, the respective officer is expected to purchase virtually all of their belongings and personal items. The items include officers’ uniforms and equipment, which one would expect to get from the Academy or employer. Some issues of quality items in this respect it is worth mentioning.Due to the fact of fluctuated pay anybody is highly tempted to go for the least expensive item and it is common sense that least expensive is least quality. The practice of officers buying uniforms and equipment for themselves has an outlay that can easily run into thousands of dollars. As a solution, the Municipal Union in 2007 through the Municipal Credit Union began issuing visa credit cards to the Police Academy as a way to borrow the money needed towards the mandatory equipment purchases.Top pay for experienced officers is no better compared with pay of other potential employers. The recommended top pay for an experienced NYPD officer is $59,588 not including overtime payments and other forms of compensation. The major contributor to these problems is the municipal funding agents, which althou gh it has continually funded other city project. The new basketball arena in Brooklyn got an approximate 8.3 acres land, which although it was a part of a forest the administration asserts that this is no land grabbing. For the sake of its development it got a further $100 million. (Kleining John, 1996). The Second Avenue Train line got the full funding agreement with a massive $2.5 bond issues and its work expected to follow within weeks to months. (Kleining John, 1996).The Mayor’s Green Plan is raising quite substantial amount whereby drivers are levied for entering Manhattan at rates of $8 for personal vehicles and $21 for truck operators. Major tugs of war have been evidently available as is the case of the New York Civil Liberties Union (NYCLU), which urged the council members to provide the Civilian Complaint Review Board (CCRB) with adequate funding and to hold it accountable for recent lapses in its performance. NYCLU decried to Mayor Bloomberg’s proposals to c ut CCRB funding by $1.2 million eliminating twenty four investigator positions and urged the city council to restore the CCRB’s funding to demand cooperation from NYPD and other agencies involved in the civilian review process.The NYCLU was actively instrumental in the creation of the independent CCRB in the year 2002, and has been an outspoken advocate for a vigorous and independent civilian review system. As part of this effort, the NYCLU has fought CCRB budget cuts year after year and has been highly critical of NYPD efforts to undermine the CCRB’s work. (Kleining John, 1996). Whereas the policy makers and implementers argue that they are in favor of keeping tabs on the people suspected of unlawful activities, they argue that the police should not be scrutinizing law abiding New Yorkers’ activities without regulations.Low pay is driving more and more New York’s finest to leave the job despite ranks being bolstered. Especially in 2005 and 2006, 1,769 of ficers were reported to quit job before their retirement eligibility. (Kleining John, 1996). The numbers have had a real impact on the streets and city hall does not have the courage to solve the problem.Difficulties Compounding Police Force IssueSome extremely difficult times were experienced in the city brought about by the economic downturn of the 1970. An arson attack particularly plagued Bronx leading to permeability of an atmosphere of lawlessness in the city. In addition, the city’s financial crisis led to a hiring freeze on all city departments including the NYPD from 1976 to 1980. (Eli B. Silverman, 1990). A crack epidemic of late 1980s and early 1990s followed in suit the arson attack, which is believed most certainly led to the city’s homicide rate to soar to an all time higher. A marvelous record of murder, so great that it has yet remained difficult to break in any other US major city, was recorded in 1990. (Eli B. Silverman, 1990).The situation was furthe r complicated by continuous thefts associated with drug addiction increasing became common. Furthermore, on September 11, 2001, twenty-three NYPD officers were killed when the World Trade Centre collapsed due to terrorist attack. More lives were lost that year than any other year in the NYPD’s history. (Eli B. Silverman, 1990).All through history, the NYPD has suffered from numerous allegations of corruption. However, as the many commissions of inquiry convened to inquire about these alleged matters, the results have shown these instances of corruption reflect far greater on the individual’s involved rather than do on a systemic form of corruption. As a matter of fact, the instances of corruption when compared through statistics to the sheer number of the departments as a whole, the NYPD actually has a lower corruption rate than many other departments. Most commissions on corruption blame low morale and chronically low salary as the large contributing factor. As things sour up to such heights it remains questionable as to the destiny and way out for these unlucky officers. Information permeability is in place of existing training and working condition in other departments of equal capacity as the NYPD.Situation Outside NYPDIt is crystal clear that in nearby departments’ payments is considerably more ranging from $50,000 for new hires and over $90,000 for experienced officers. Over the last few years hundreds of NYPD city officers have been found to leave for higher paying jobs with other agencies notably the Nassau County Police Department, the Suffolk County Police Department and the Port Authority Police of New York and New Jersey. (Bratton et al, 1998). Discontent over pay issues has become so widespread and so well known that higher paying departments in the lower cost of living areas such as the Rochester New York Police are actively recruiting NYPD officers to join their forces. Large numbers of NYPD officers have also migrated to th e New York City Fire Departments where, although the payments are similar to that of NYPD, work schedules are more attractive and they are privileged to have a more amicable relationship with the public. (Bratton et al, 1998).However, the NYPD is not comfortable with the exodus taken by their trained employees. Resources have been used for the training and therefore the exodus is a big loss to NYPD. Employees’ turnover is also a bad influence facing NYPD as a result of this exodus. Therefore, to counteract the exodus, the NYPD is using contract changes to forbid the prior practice of allowing police officers who join the fire department to transfer their seniority for a compensation purposes. With all new firefighters now compelled to begin working at the same starting pay, the number of NYPD officials willing to exit over to the FDNY is likely to fall considerably. (Bratton et al, 1998).Some NYPD officers charge that the department leadership is seeking to stem the flow of o fficers to other jurisdictions by administrative means. In January 2006, 35 NYPD officers seeking to move to the Port Authority Police sued the NYPD claiming that it was refusing to make their personal records available to Ports Authority Police Department (PAPD) background investigators. The plaintiffs won the injunction at the trial level but the appellate division in January 2007 overturned that ruling and ordered that case to trial. (James T. Hamilton, 2000). For its part, the NYPD claims that its actions are merely in line with the personnel practices of any other employers and that there is no â€Å"stealth† effort to prevent officers from moving elsewhere.Nonetheless, it is a fact that no NYPD officers have been included in the last PAPD Police Academy as a result of the deliberate confinement of their background records by their employer NYPD. Despite these obstacles, there are signs that the exodus from the NYPD may become accelerating. In 2006, 902 officers resigned before eligibility for retirement. The number had been 867 in the previous year (2005) and 635 in the other previous year (2004), which contributes for an attrition rate of around 2%. (James T. Hamilton, 2000).While the Police Commissioner Raymond Kelly insists that the figures compares positively with the turnover rates in private industry, police union officials note that the proper comparison should be with prior years on the NYPD records in past years. For example, in 1991 only 15% officers left early thus recording an attrition rate of less than one half of one percent. (James T. Hamilton, 2000).The unfair state in NYPD has impacted negative picture of the Academy. Recruits and skilled officers are expected to take care of their transport costs. They are also supposed to cater for costs of their duty belts, handcuffs, flashlights etc. whenever they wear out. The cost of maintaining fresh supplies has been uncatered for by the Academy. The supervisors treat recruits and officer s like children and the harsh manner of the supervisors create disrespect in the Academy. Recruits are taken for field experience and during the occasion they are given up to supervisory jobs. Due to the frequent turnover some identified officers and recruits are forced to act on supervisory capacity without an extra pay.At the end of it all participation in unions is crippled due to crippled financial status. They are also incapacitated to play meaningful roles in the society and their background society issues are very poor.The potential recruit of NYPD should expect to earn the lowest pay while working in the most dangerous environment in the tri-state area and should also expect picayune disciplinary action with a trial room having nearly 100% conviction rate. Dozens of civilian complaints from criminals and then complaints are investigated by cop hating, democratic club hacks. The recruit should also expect to be a great â€Å"white defendant† seeking publicity, grand-st anding district attorney have their life ruined when they make a good faith mistake they become financially destroyed plus their families by paying huge money in legal fees. The cop expects the boss ever behind while executing duties, any civilian complaint with a controversial case falls on the cops shoulders.The supervisors of the cops are ready to protect politicians at the expense of their junior cops. The members of the department above the rank of lieutenant are ready to earn promotion through suppression of their juniors. The NYPD cop members are the most demoralized army group. They give protection to millions of liberal, unappreciative citizens and democratic officers who hate them. The cops are also vilified by phony ministers who command huge sums of government poverty money to aid and assist crime. The cops transcend through six months of training then in disquiets join other police departments leaving their leaders searching for reasons of the exodus. As senior members of NYPD shift to other departments, such as Suffolk County Cop, a vacancy opening leaves a promotion slot quickly.ConclusionThe result of poor funding in NYPD is a poor social economic structure. This leads to exit and exodus of those who enter NYPD Academy leading to brain drain and employee turnover. The lack of funding has created a huge salary disparity between NYPD and other same category departments. Any well-qualified person fears any indulgence with NYPD. Although their entry requirements are well outlines, a number of recruits gain entry into the Academy without the possession of valid driving licenses, relevant credentials possibility of suffering some disqualifications creates problems of retention of probationary employees since discontent and lack of motivation is the cause of exodus to a better place.ReferencesBratton, William J. & Knobler Peter (1998) Turnaround: How American Top Cops Reversed the Crime Epidemic. New York: Random House.Eli B. Silverman (1990) NYPD Bat tles Crime: Innovative Strategies in Policing. North Eastern University Press. ISBN-13:978-15555340011.Fred. M. Rafilson (2000) Police Officer Arco; 13th Ed. ISBN-13:978-0028637419.James T. Hamilton (2000) Channeling Violence. Princeton University Press. New Ed. ISBN-13:978-0691070247.Kleining John (1996) The Ethics of Policing. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Lung Worthy, Robert H. (1986) The Structure of Police Organizations. New York. Praeger.Reaves, Brian A. (1996) Local Police Departments. Diane Pub Co. ISBN-13:978-0788130076.

Discourage people from damaging their own health Essay

What more should be done to discourage people from damaging their own health? Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Discouraging people from damaging their own health is important because it will help the people to live a healthy lifestyle and with a healthy lifestyle, the people can live longer without any health problems or diseases. There are many ways to discourage people from damaging their own health, especially such as discouraging the people from smoking. To discourage people from smoking it can be done by putting tobacco labels, stop advertising, raising taxes and banning smoking. Tobacco labels are like warning messages that appear on the packaging of cigarettes and other tobacco products concerning the health effects of those products. There have been implemented in an effort to enhance the public’s awareness of the harmful effects of smoking. For example, in the United States, on September 2012, all cigarettes for sale or distributed in the United States were to be packaged or advertised with these new cigarette health and a stop smoking hotline number. Studies have shown that viewers had a stronger response to the pictures than to written warnings. Cigarettes advertisements that are carried on televisions, radios and internet websites, should be stopped. If it is not being put to a halt, the people will smoke more and damage their own health more. Instead they should advertise the side effects of smoking too much cigarettes. For example, in the United States, the congress banned cigarette advertising on TV and radio in 1971 and spit tobacco advertising in 1987. The American Legacy Foundation and many states have made anti-smoking public service messages that are featured on television, radio, and billboards. Some tobacco companies have come up with their own advertisements, which appear to be anti-smoking and it actually helps reduce the amount of smokers. Raising the taxes of cigarettes, will reduce the amount of people or may be even stop them from smoking therefore the people will be able to live healthy a lifestyle. An example is in the U.S. The taxes on cigarettes have risen in many states in recent years. These increased costs have been shown to discourage young people from starting to smoke and encourage smokers to quit. As of early 2014, the federal cigarette tax is $1.01 per pack. State taxes on tobacco vary from as low as 17 cents in Missouri to up  to $4.35 a pack in New York. Nearly all states and Washington DC levy their own taxes on other tobacco products such as cigars, pipe tobacco, snuff, and chewing tobacco. As of 2014, Pennsylvania charges no state tax on non-cigarette tobacco products, while Minnesota and Washington both charge 95% of the wholesale price of the tobacco product in taxes. The most important way to stop people from smoking is by banning smoking in some countries. This means that the government will introduce the law into the country and if anyone who goes against the law, will have to pay a fine. In the United States, the laws in all 50 states and the District of Columbia restrict or do not allow smoking in certain public places. These laws range from simple restrictions, such as designated areas in state or local government buildings, to laws that ban smoking in all public places and workplaces. Federal buildings are required to be smoke-free. Smoking is also banned on all domestic airplane flights. According to the US Surgeon General, smoke-free policies that ban smoking in all indoor areas are the only way to be sure that people are not exposed to secondhand smoke at work and in other public places. In my conclusion, I think the government or any organizations should be raise more awareness of the side effects of smoking cigarettes by organizing exhibitions, making leaflets about the side effects of smoking and televisions advertisements to raise awareness. From there, the people would understand the bad effects of smoking too much cigarettes.

Biography of Pancho Villa Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Biography of Pancho Villa - Essay Example Villa was notorious for his short temper and cruelty, particularly towards women.   His Indian heritage gave him a deep knowledge of the land, making him a excellent guerilla fighter. He was drafted into the 14th  Calvary Regiment in 1903. He deserted and joined the revolutionary forces of Francisco Madero in 1910. (Becker). After Madero’s ouster, Villa escaped to the United States in 1912.   By the end of 1914, he returned to Mexico, formed the Division del Norte and joined the revolution against Victoriano Huerta, along with other revolutionaries such as  Venustiano Carranza  and  Emiliano Zapata. He also served as provisional governor of Chihuahua in 1913-1914. Villa was often in conflict with other military groups and even fought with U.S. troops from 1916 to 1917. In 1920, Villa was given a pardon in return for stopping his independent military activities.   (Biography.com). On July 20, 1923, Villa was driving past the intersection of Benito Juà ¡rez and Gabino Barreda in Maturana, when he was assassinated and killed instantly. Villa is remembered for fighting for the causes of the poor and his opposition to foreign exploitation of his country.

Cross cultural communication and internal communication improvement in Dissertation

Cross cultural communication and internal communication improvement in the oil and gas industry (ADNOC) - Dissertation Example This is because they could be having ethnic and cultural differences. There has been extensive discussion about the significance of poor internal communication together with cross – cultural communication towards the inability of companies to realize positive performance. The comprehension of cross – cultural and internal communication is crucial to the realization of organizational competitiveness. It has been observed that communication challenges within organizations have made it difficult to manage and screen threats the performance. As workplaces increasingly become global, there is the need to ensure effective cross – cultural communication as well as maintaining internal communication excellence. Companies must comprehend how to pass information to their workers and clients in order to meet the organizations goals and aspirations. The Oil and Gas Industry is one such global workplaces where there is the need to have excellent communication both internally and across other cultural groups. It is notable that the gas and oil company (ADNOC) is experiencing challenges in its internal and cross-cultural communication, which has affected performance in the exploration and production section of the corporation. In order to rectify this challenge, there is a need to commission research to help understand how internal and cross-cultural communication can be improved. ... The research methodology shall entail both quantitative and qualitative exploration strategies such as group observations, scheduling and conducting interviews, and carrying out surveys to complete data gathering. Literature Review Cross – cultural communication entails that which takes place between people who necessarily have differing cultural perspectives. These differences might include a range of issues from nationality, age difference, and gender difference among others in the same workplace (Guffey & Almonte, 2009). Cross-cultural communication  also connotes the capability to effectively form, foster, and develop relationships with people of a background different from one's own (Stringer & Cassidy, 2009). This is founded on the knowledge of several issues including values in other cultures, perceptions, behaviours, social class, decision making strategies, and a comprehension of how people belonging to a certain group convey message orally, non verbally, through do cumentation, and in diverse business and common contexts (Stringer & Cassidy, 2009).. Previously, authors and communication specialists have studied cross – cultural communication as well as internal communication under organizational contexts. The focus of such studies has been to attempt to develop a comprehension on how differences among people might affect the way they interact or fail to while with others (Stringer & Cassidy, 2009). The notion that some individuals in the course of their life adapt to one cultural orientation may present massive challenges whenever they meet people from other differing cultures. Furthermore, exposure to many other cultures has a direct influence on an individual's ability to interact with others and realize meaningful results (Guffey &

Tuna again In Fault-Finding England, It's a Cause for Divorce Essay

Tuna again In Fault-Finding England, It's a Cause for Divorce - Essay Example Because of this, complaints include the mundane, absurd and occasionally the bizarre. However, I argue that Lyall takes a serious subject much too lightly and that her implied ‘solution’, does nothing to fix the problem, instead it is an attempt to hold the rest of the world to a particular standard, which does not appear to be working very well anyway. Lyall is adamant about criticizing the United Kingdom system of divorce, implying that the most effective solution for the problem of divorces in the United Kingdom would be to move to the American model, and allow for no-fault divorce. However, how much of a problem is there in the United Kingdom? In the United Kingdom, the divorce rate for 2010 is 11.1 divorces per 1,000 individuals in the married population. If one takes into account the fact that a married couple consists of two individuals, this is a rate of a little over 20% of marriages fail (Rogers 2011). Furthermore, it is estimated that around 70% of these divor ces occur for first marriages (Divorce Rate 2009), suggesting that either people learn from their mistakes, or that few remarry. These statistics are different in the United States, where the divorce rate is approximately 50% (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2012), that is, half of all marriages end in divorce. The relationship of divorce to number of marriage is also different, with second marriages having a higher rate of divorce than first, and third marriages having an even higher rate (Divorce Rate 1999). These figures suggest that marriages fare significantly better in the United Kingdom than in the United States. This might be a result of the United Kingdom system of divorce being more difficult, but the article by Lyall implies this is not the case. She suggests that results are not more complicated in the United Kingdom, just that they focus on more trivial matters. Therefore, if this trend is not caused by a difficultly in divorcing, the next logical answer is t hat marriages in the United Kingdom fare better than their United States counterparts. This raises some important questions. For example, does the United Kingdom system of divorce help to keep couples together? This argument is not as unreasonable as it sounds as thinking and writing out reasons for the divorce may help couples to confront their problems, and to realize how trivial many of these actually are. This allows room for much more reflection than the American process, where couples may not even be certain between themselves why they are divorcing. Lyall argues that creating a no-fault divorce would remove the requirement for judges and lawyers to determine fault in the divorce. As she explains, currently under the United Kingdom law a divorce must fall into one of five categories before it can be granted. The most common category is unreasonable behavior, which as Lyall shows, can cover a wide range of different types of behavior. However, Lyall appears to believe that movi ng to a no-fault divorce system would not increase the rates of divorce. This argument is heavily flawed, as by its very nature, making divorce easier would increase how often it occurs. For example, in the United Kingdom the practice of extended separation is common, and this is often used to provide evidence for a future divorce claim (National Family Mediation 2010). This practice can help couples to understand what they lose

9.1 Discussion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

9.1 Discussion - Essay Example She had invested also in the stock market, promoted herself immensely as a video game programmer and settled down as a lobbyist for her own corporation. While undertaking all these pursuits, Bear rubbed shoulders with materialism. However, it is apparent that eventually, Bear develops misgivings towards the prospects of materialism fulfilling her. Instead, she begins to dabble with the idea of being a high school math teacher. Satisfaction comes from the pursuit and actualization of true purpose in life. Normally, childhood and teenage encounters fuse with an individual’s personality, and thereby helping determine an individual’s true purpose in life. For instance, forces of acculturation and socialization towards societal values are strongest during childhood and adolescence (Mawere, 275). It is not fortuitous that Bear recalls the prospects of being a high school math teacher near where she was raised. Since values transmitted by humans through acculturation and socialization are deeply inculcated into a person’s psychosocial system, it becomes impossible for an individual to walk out on his true purpose in life and remain happy or fulfilled. Thus, absence of happiness or a sense of fulfillment serves as an indicator to incorrect alignment, as far as the pursuit of true purpose goes. Not even the greatest extent of success outside an individual’s true purpose can make up for an individual’s true

Climate Disruption Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Climate Disruption - Term Paper Example The intention of this study is climate change that is definitively happening, and the consensus is that the major cause of this climate change is man-made. The theory as to why climate change is occurring centers around greenhouse gases. Karl & Tremberth explain that these gases, which include carbon dioxide that results from burning fossil fuel accumulates in the atmosphere, and this is what causes global warming. This effect has been seen worldwide. They also state that the concrete jungles of cities makes the cities hotter than more rural areas, because of the pollution in these areas causes urban heat islands. Other places where there are regionally warmer temperatures includes Amazonia and Sahel, because of deforestation and desertification. Cloud feedback, in which clouds trap long-wave radiation, is another cause of warming. Alternately, cloud feedback may cause global coolling if the clouds reflect solar radiation . Man has contributed to the global warming problem in a signi ficant way. One way is through emissions from fuel burning, which causes oxidized gases which can become strongly absorbing aerosols, such as black carbon or soot. This interacts with the clouds and moisture, and this leads to neat heating. These aerosols also affect the climate by reflecting solar radiation and affect the climate indirectly by changing the reflective properties of clouds and the clouds’ lifetimes. The overall consensus is that global climate change is due to man-made activities, and that climate change has dire consequences for our ecosystems and land masses throughout the world. Evidence Regarding Climate Change The scientific consensus is that the cause of climate change is due to an increase in greenhouse gases. There are a variety of studies which support this claim, and Oreskes (2004) contends, essentially, that the debate on climate change is not over, for there are no significant dissenting opinions on the matter. Climate change is real, it is caused by greenhouse gases and it is not the result of a natural warming trend. In her article â€Å"The Scientific Consensus on Climate Change,† Oreskes takes on the individuals who would deny climate change and refutes their arguments, one by one. She begins by stating that the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which was created in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization and the United Nations Environment Program, has stated unequivocally that the scientific consensus on the matter is that human activity is affecting the earth’s temperatures. They state that the observed warming over the past 50 years is due to the greenhouse gas concentrations. Oreskes observes that the IPCC was formed for political reasons, not to foster new research, and this is because the matter of climate change is one which is highly political. This might make the panel suspect, ecept that Oreske contends that all the major scientific bodies in the United States with expertise o n the matter have issued reports stating the same thing – that greenhouse gases has caused the earth’s temperature to rise. They also have consensus that the rise in these temperatures are over and above natural warming trends that might have happened within this period (Oreskes, 2004). Oreskes has also reviewed the contents of scientifically reviewed papers which have been published in recent years, noting that these papers must be scientifically sound, as they are published in peer-reviewed papers and must pass the scrutiny of critical, expert colleagues. Oreskes notes that the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) has indeed all the papers which have been refereed by scientific journals, and are able to sample the scientific literature on any given subject, which provides an unbiased view of the subject. The ISI examined abstracts for 928 papers published between the years 1993 and 2003, and found that, after using the keyword phrase â€Å"global climate chang e† to discern the contents of articles about this subject that not one of the papers

Cellular Phones and Cancer Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Cellular Phones and Cancer - Case Study Example Studies to understand the relation between rf and biological tissue have been conducted since the early 1940’s. The epidemiological studies performed were inconclusive due to the large number of uncontrolled variables such as the amount of power emitted by different models of phones used. Furthermore, studies performed on laboratory animals also resulted in insignificant increase in health problems. Though in February 2011, the New York Times reported a study conducted by the researchers at the National Institute of Health which found that cell phone usage caused 7 percent increase in brain activity. This increase in brain activity was confined to the area of the brain that was near the rf antenna of the cell phone. The results of this study indicated that the use of cell phones did have measurable effects on the brain activity. The role of the engineer when confronted with ongoing debate of the relation between cellular phones and cancer is vague. The engineer could move towards redesigning of cell phones that reduce rf emission. However, this action would not be scientifically proven as the adverse effect of cell phone usage resulting in cancer has yet to be noted. The ethical procedure to be followed by the engineer in this case is discussable. The Utilitarianism, moral theory, states that those actions are acceptable and good which serve to maximize human wellbeing. Utilitarianism stresses that maximizing the potential of the whole society is more important than maximizing the importance of an individual. The theory aims to balance the needs of the society with the needs of an individual, with an emphasis on the action that would provide maximum benefit to the people. In respect to engineering, the moral theory is particularly important in risk-benefit analysis and cost-benefit analysis. The invention and mass production of the cell phone can be regarded as one of the foremost inventions of the 20th

Law Synopsis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Law Synopsis - Essay Example Justice Holmes of the Supreme Court began his ruling by giving a brief overview of the case. The Porto Rican leadership based the case. The Porto Rican leadership intended to introduce a bill that would enable the locals to dig deeper in their pockets while paying tax. It prompted the appellant to file a case to stop the implementation of the tax collection bill. The appellant succeeded in temporarily preventing the implementation of the bills when the District court gave an injunction on 31ST of March 1925. It directed the Porto Rican government to put on hold all the plans they had regarding the introduction of the bill while the case was being listed to before the court. Following the court injunction, the hearings for the case began on 7TH April 1925 at the Court of Appeal. The Court of Appeal reversed the ruling that had been made by the District Court thereby giving green light to the Porto Rican authorities to begin the implementation of the tax collection bill. The preparations by the Porto Rican government were nonetheless, put on hold when the Court of Appeal upon listening to further hearings temporarily suspended any preparations for the introduction of the bill and in the process transferring the case to the Supreme Court. The Act of September 14TH, 1922, c 305 allowed the Court of Appeal to transfer the case to the Supreme Court.

Performing arts Essay Example for Free

Performing arts Essay Art, culture, and society; these three elements are closely linked. These three elements affect one another in one way or another. There is often a conflict of interest between the artist, the audience, and the government body. The artist’s aim is to express art freely. The audience’s aim is to view art in forms that are not offensive to them. The government’s aim is to mitigate the conflict of interest between the two parties by implementing policies and restrictions to art pieces that are produced and viewed. Controversy is an issue to take into consideration by the government when funding art and censoring art. This is due to art pieces being widely reached through the advances of technology. Audiences of art are thus easily accessible to art that could influence or offend. However, art is innately challenging and often provocative. Creativity would be stifled if the government funded only art so bland that it offended no one. Creativity would also be stifled if the government creates censorship to limit art that challenges the strongly held beliefs of the society. These concerns raise a few questions to Art in the society. Firstly, how much restriction should the government restrict the type of art forms that could have an adverse effect on the society? Or rather what limitations on censorship and funding should be made for the sake of artist value, or more broadly freedom of expression? Secondly, should it be the responsibility for the artist to take into consideration the effect on the viewer when creating art pieces that may seem controversial to others? In Singapore, Art is increasingly promoted. The promotion of Art in Singapore can be seen from the provision of arts institution that provides full time programmes for the performing arts, the implementation of the yearly Singapore Art Festival which provides a platform for artist to express their talent and for the community to appreciate and to understand Art better, and the funding from the government to arts companies, the opening of the Art Science Museum in February 2012, etc. Although Art is increasingly promoted in Singapore, artistic freedom is being under assaulted. Freedom is threatened by pressures from the government. The society only accepts art that is socially acceptable; one that does not break the law and does not offend any individual. The recent works of a student of an art institution in Singapore is one example that provides evidence for freedom of artistic expression being restricted. The artist printed stickers with captions and pasted them on a pavement and on road traffic signs an act of a guerrilla art scene. She also painted â€Å"My Grandfather Road. † along certain roads in Singapore. While her works portrays certain value of the Singaporean Culture, where singlish and certain forms of lingos are being used in her stickers and paintings, they are then being deemed by the law as vandalism. This specific act of art creation has roared a debate among netizens in Singapore, with many fighting for freedom for creative expression, while the others stating that what she did was merely seeking attention, vandalism, or creating art of no value. In 1994, a performing artist was fined for committing an obscene act. In his performance, he snipped his pubic hair before a small audience as a symbolic protest against police entrapment of gays, punishment by flogging, jail sentences for victimless crimes, and news media exposure of those convicted. He was also prohibited from future public performances. While the artist did this for the love of art and in the interest of expanding the general outlook of art in Singapore, The National Arts Council branded the acts vulgar and extremely distasteful. If the government funds and allows only art that is has no controversial value, then wouldn’t creativity be buried in our society? Also, if art works is created to conform to the norm of the society, is art still art? Art is a form of freedom, expression, creativity, and life. However, from the above two examples, it can be seen that there is a constraint place on freedom of artistic expression and the value of art. Artists can express art only with lawful restrictions. Artists who are daring enough to oppose to such norms are either being punish, or their art works are being restricted from the audience. The rest restricts their work to those that conforms to the societal norms. With these restrictions, art can never be expressed in its original form; audience can never be exposed to some brilliant art works which may be vulgar to some but artistic to others. By total restriction of art works that lack redeeming social values, we will be exposed to only art that conforms. This would cause depreciation in the value of art in our society. Despite the fact that art should be freely expressed to preserve its value of creativity, it is important to take into consideration what effect some art works may have on our society. It can be seen that the two artists go against cultural norms to showcase art works that breaks away from the norm and set themselves different from others. By breaking away from the cultural norm, viewers with his or her set of cultural values may be offended. However, by silencing art pieces that the majority considers offensive, we may be oppressing the minority and preventing the society from learning the message that the artist conveys. Thus it is important for an artist to recognize how far he or she should go in order to create art works that do not offend some individuals. It is widely believed that Singapore, being a Cosmopolitan city, has to be very careful when expressing our thoughts on sensitive issues. In our society, censorship is necessary to protect its community from artistic content that lack redeeming social values. It can be argued that artistic content that oppose social values should be restricted. It is stated by our minister that artists can express themselves through many other areas without crossing any red tape. This shows that total freedom of artistic expression is indeed not present in our society. In conclusion, while artists should be able freely express as much as possible, it is only fair for them to consider whether their work would cause harms to others. In both examples, from the artists’ point of view, they are merely creating art freely and creatively. Yet their works did not take into consideration the effects it has on the environment, community, and individuals. Also, although the government has the responsibility and the right to protect its community from inappropriate message and content, individuals should be given certain rights to choose what they deemed suitable for themselves. The definition of obscenity differs among different individuals. What seems obscene to one may not be obscene to others. Thus it is important to have a clear line on what the rights does the government has on implementing policies and guidelines to restrict art works from the audience.

Numerous Definitions Of Expatriates

Numerous Definitions Of Expatriates This chapter explores the literature around expatriates in Multinational Corporations, emphasizes the focus of adjusting to cultural differences when preparing expatriates for foreign assignments and also show how it enables them to succeed in their foreign assignments. Different theories and critiques on expatriate training will also be discussed. Expatriation has long been identified as a coordination and control mechanism used by MNCs ( Edstrom Galbraith, 1977; Martinez Jarillo, 1991). As global competition continues to intensify, it becomes increasingly important for multinational corporations (MNCs) to maintain control over their international operations (Barlett Ghoshal, 1988, 1989; Geringer Hebert, 1989; Martinez Jarillo, 1989; Sohn, 1994 ) since appropriate control will ensure that the MNCs strategic goals are met and deviations from standards are corrected to enable subsidiaries act in accordance with headquarters policies. (Vernon, Wells, Rangan, 1996) Numerous definitions of expatriates exist. Several researchers define an expatriate as someone who is assigned to a single foreign country and able to hold a leadership role, (Pucik and Saba, 1998), has high technical skill levels relative to personnel in the host location (Naumann, 1992) and has a limited role or time for his or her assignment in the overseas location (Adler and Bartholomew,1992). Harzing, (2001) defines expatriates as usually home-country assignees who hold top management positions or key positions in functional departments of a foreign subsidiary. Shaffer, Harrison and Gilley, (1999) also define an expatriate as a highly skilled worker with unique expertise who is sent to work in another unit of the same company located in a foreign country generally on a temporary basis for a period of at least six months which will usually involve relocation and significant progress in cultural adjustment (Selmer et al.,1998; Coyle and Shortland, 1992; Torbiorn, 1982). Since the globalization of economies worldwide has resulted in pressure for managers to deal routinely with other cultures and different countries business practices (Marchington and Wilkinson, 2008), it has brought a corresponding rise in multinational corporations direct investment in different countries. However, as these MNCs expand their operations into foreign countries, they also transfer their human resources and managerial practices to their foreign subsidiaries which are not always successful due to the influence of cultural differences between the home and host countries (Dowling et al, 2008) as shown below. Figure 2.1 Management Demands of International Growth d%2013[1] Source: Dowling, P.J., Festing, M., and Engle, A.D., Sr. (2008) International Human Resource Management: Managing People in a Multinational Context. 5th Edn. London: Cengage Learning EMEA As seen in figure 2.1, the globalization of economies worldwide has resulted in pressure for MNCs to deal regularly with other cultures, their beliefs, size, different business practices amongst others and recognising these differences is the first necessary step to anticipating potential threats and opportunities for business encounters (Schneider and Barsoux, 2003). The implication of this focus is that our contemporary world is one of cultural diversity and the MNCs normally operate within diverse cultural environments. For the expatriates, then, cultural issues of all sorts, whether at home or in the host country, become basic concerns. Culture is what makes us what we are and our cultural backgrounds influence everything we do at all times and in all places. We learn about and live our local cultures through the processes of socialization and acculturation that begin in childhood. Now, in order to be functional in a different culture, we need to appreciate its values, norms, beliefs, and behaviour patterns and learn to adjust to them as much as possible. Proficiency in the language of the host country goes a long way to provide someone with the tools of cultural competence. The more the expatriate knows about the host culture (including speaking the local language), about its values and expectations, and the more proficient he/she is in the l ocal language, the greater his/her chances of a successful job performance. All of this adds to a cross-cultural learning that will greatly facilitate his/her professional life while managing the business of the organization within the parameters of a different culture. 2.2 Types Of Expatriates Figure 2.2 presents international human resource management activities in three dimensions. The broad human resource activities of procurement, allocation and utilization. The national or country categories involved in international HRM activities which are the host-country where a subsidiary may be located; the home-country where the firm is headquartered; and other countries that may be the source of labour, finance and other inputs. The three categories of employees of an international firm which are the host-country nationals; parent-country nationals and third-country nationals. DISSERTATION%20DIAGRAM%201[1] Figure 2.2 Types of Expatriates Source: P.V Morgan (1986) International Human Resource Management: Fact or Fiction, Personnel Administrator, Vol. 31, No. 9, pg. 44. The management of foreign subsidiary operations is a substantial challenge for multinational corporations because when making the subsidiary staffing decision, they have the option to choosing between parent country nationals (PCNs), host country nationals (HCNs) and third country nationals (TCN) from the home, host or other countries of the MNC as seen in the diagram above. Perlmutter and Heenan (1974) also widened the analysis of the international human resource selection decision through the dimension of employer staffing choices where four primary philosophies were identified which are the ethnocentric, polycentric, regiocentric, and geocentric staffing . 2.3 Roles of Expatriates According to Rahim (1983) an expatriate has to play many different roles which includes being an agent of direct control, socialization, network builder, boundary spanner, and knowledge transferor which is reflected in the diagram below. d%2015[2] Figure 2.3 The Role of an Expatriate Source: Dowling, P.J., Festing, M., and Engle, A.D., Sr. (2008) International Human Resource Management: Managing People in a Multinational Context. 5th Edn. London: Cengage Learning EMEA. As seen in figure 2.3, the reasons for using expatriates are not limited since they have multiple roles. The expatriate as an agent of direct control can be seen as a control mechanism where the primary role is that of ensuring compliance through direct supervision. The expatriate as an agent of socialization involves the use of corporate culture as an informal control mechanism since they are bound to be exposed to different viewpoints and perspectives that will shape their behaviour. As expatriates move between various organisational units, their network of personal relationship changes. Hence, expatriates are network builders that develop social capital by fostering interpersonal linkages that can be used for informal control and communication purposes. Expatriates are boundary spanners because they can collect host-country information, act as representatives of their firms in the host country and can influence agents. Expatriates are language nodes since they can learn the language of the host country they are in order to adapt. Expatriates also transfer competence and knowledge from their home countries to host countries and vice versa in the course of their assignments. Edstrom and Galbraith (1977) also identify three general company motives for sending out expatriates: position filling (PF), management development and organisation development. Position filling refers to the transfer of technical knowledge, mainly to developing countries where qualified local nationals are not available (Edstrom and Galbraith, 1977); Transfer for management development gives the expatriate manager in question international experience and develops him for future roles in subsidiaries abroad or with the parent company (Edstrom and Galbraith, 1977); Organisation development occurs where transfers are used to change or maintain the structure and decision processes of the organisation. In this case, transfers are used as a co-ordination and control strategy. Specifically, the use of expatriate personnel has been recognized as an important control mechanism to monitor and evaluate the activities and behaviours within the subsidiary (Black Mendenhall, 1990; Boyacigiller, 1990; Edstrom Galbraith, 1977; Kobrin, 1988; Schuler, Dowling, De Cieri, 1993; Tung, 1993). However, this role comprises of two elements which are direct and indirect control. Direct control is defined as the direct involvement in decision making, selection and promotion of local employees while indirect control is exercised through the transmission of values, attitudes and ways of doing things, or by being cultural carriers'(Edstrom and Galbraith 1977; Jaeger 1983; Lu and Bjorkman, 1997). Whether implicitly or explicitly stated, expatriates are also trainers who are expected to assist the multinational corporations train and develop HCNs to be able to train their replacements ( Dowling et al, 2008) . Expatriates should also be perceived not just as knowledge carriers but, more importantly, as transfer facilitators who enhance the transfer of important parent-firm organizational knowledge to its subsidiaries (Bonache and Brewster, 2001; HÃ ©bert et al.,2005; Kostova and Roth, 2003). However, according to Fenwick et al, (1999), there has been little empirical investigation as to how effective expatriates have been as agents of socialization since attempts to introduce corporate values and norms ritualized in the form of certain expected behaviours often have negative results at the subsidiary level. Besides transferring knowledge from headquarters to overseas affiliates, expatriates also learn from their involvement in managing these operations. In this case, expatriates play the role of learning agents, absorbing new knowledge on behalf of the headquarters ( Jaeger and Baliga, 1985) . Expatriates also serve an important role as transmitters of corporate culture (Jackson,2002) or cultural carrier (Edstrom and Galbraith 1977; Jaeger 1983; Lu and Bjorkman1997) since they are often sent abroad to transmit corporate culture (Jackson, 2002). Boundary spanning refers to activities, such as gathering information that bridge internal and external organisational contexts ( Dowling et al, 2008) . Expatriates are considered boundary spanners because they can collect host-country information, act as representatives of their firms in the host country and can influence agents ( Dowling et al, 2008) . 2.3.1 Other Roles of Expatriates Expatriates are used for a variety of other reasons which includes to provide staff with management development experience for future senior managers (Peterson, Sergent, Napier and Shim, 1996), to set up methods of working, new technology or new marketing methods (Jackson, 2002) , for accountability, their technical skills, their knowledge of products and to provide international exposure to key personnel for development purposes (Arvey, Bhagat and Salas, 1991; Klaus, 1995). Finally, expatriates may be utilized to enforce and protect the companys interests (Bird Dunbar, 1991; Dowling, Schuler, Welch, 1994). 2.4. Major Factors that Affect Expatriates Effectiveness Many factors may affect the effectiveness of expatriates (Thomas, 2002, Tung, 1998) since as indicated by Rahim (1983) an expatriate has to play many different roles which includes being a representative from the parent company; a manager for a local subsidiary company; a local resident; a local citizen or a citizen in both countries; an expert; and a family member. Figure 2.4 International Assignments: Factors Moderating Performance Certain factors moderate expatriates performance and affect the decision to stay or leave the international assignment. Some of these factors as seen in figure 2.4 below includes the inability to adjust to the foreign culture which has been a consistent reason given for expatriate failure, the length of the assignment which might be quite long, the unwillingness to go for the assignment, work-related and psychological factors amongst others. d%208[1] Figure 2.4 Source: Dowling, P.J., Festing, M., and Engle, A.D., Sr. (2008) International Human Resource Management: Managing People in a Multinational Context. 5th Edn. London: Cengage Learning EMEA 2.4.1 Why Expatriates Fail One of the most prominent issues in international human resource management is the failure of expatriates (Hill, 2005:624; ÃÆ'-zbilgin, 2005:132; Black et al., 1991:291;Shaffer Harrison, 1998:87; Black, 1988:277) which as defined by Hill (2005:624) as the premature return of an expatriate to his or her home country. Assignments often may not be completed, necessitating the replacement of the expatriate (Bird Dunbar. 1991; Black, 1988) and the frequently cited reasons for this outcome include the inability of the expatriate or the spouse and family to adjust to the new environment (Black Gregersen, 1991;Black, Mendenhall. Oddou. 1991; Gaylord,1979; Harvey, 1985) or diminished job satisfaction and effectiveness (Feldman Thomas, 1992;1993; Hodgetts, 1993;Miller, 1975; Naumann, 1993; Stening Hammer, 1992) as a result of workplace conflict around differences in norms and culture. As relocation, be it domestic or international always causes change for those involved as scholars have repeatedly reported that stress levels increase with cultural environment distance (Torbion, 1982; Black, 1988) which is supported by a recent survey released by the U.S National Foreign Trade Council where it was reported that the inability to adjust to the foreign cultural environment was the key reason for expatriate failure and has continued to remain the major reason given for expatriate failure which has been a subject of considerable interest to researchers. Additionally, it has been found that the adjustment of the spouse is highly correlated with the adjustment of the expatriate and that the children tend to mirror their parents reactions (Black and Stephens, 1989). This was observed after an early study by Tung (1982:67) who found out that the number one reason for the failure of expatriates in the US and Western European MNCs were the inability of the expatriates spouse to adjust to the foreign location which proves that family adjustment is a significant criteria that determines expatriates failure in a country ( Selma, 2002) since research over the past 20 years has shown a consistent ranking of the inability of the spouse/partner/family to adjust to the foreign culture as a primary cause of early recall which may result from non-preparation for the move abroad or from the inability to work in the foreign country (Dowling et al, 2008). The spouses difficulty in adjustment may also be related to several other factors which include the inability to cope without the familiar network of family and friends, inadequate language skills or cultural training, and inadequate social support programs to assist him or her in developing an acceptable lifestyle overseas (Adler, 1997). However, Shaffer and Harrison (1998:87) and Black, (1988:277) observe that failure may vary in degree. They highlight the fact that expatriates who remain on the assignment but psychologically withdraw may incur indirect losses for their enterprise. These losses can include a reduction in productivity, market share, and competitive position, as well as damaged staff, customer and supplier relations, and a discredited corporate image and reputation. Tung (1982:68) surveying United States (US), European and Japanese MNCs, highlighted the severity of the problem when identifying that 7 percent of the United States MNCs experienced expatriate failure rates of 10-40 percent, 69 percent had a recall or failure rate of 10-20 percent, and the remaining 24 percent experienced a failure rate of less than 10 percent. He also observed that US-based MNCs experienced a much higher expatriate failure rate than either Western European or Japanese MNCs. More recently Shay and Tracey (1997:31) stated that 25 to 40 percent of the United States expatriates assigned to a developed country return home prematurely compared to 70 percent assigned to a developing country. This is supported by Briscoe, Schuler and Claus (2009) who observed that the rate of early return for US expatriates varies in different enterprises (and in different surveys) from 10 percent to 80 percent (with a common failure rate in the 30-40 percent range). Furthermore, according to Copeland and Griggs (in Shay Tracey, 1997:31) and Deresky (2002:398), it is estimated that between 30 and 50 percent of expatriates who do complete their assignments are considered ineffective or marginally effective. Numerous authors have also highlighted the high cost of a failed expatriate assignment. According to authors such as McNerney (1996:1), Shay and Tracey (1997:31), Hill (2005:624), and Chowanec and Newstrom (1991:65), the estimated cost of a failed expatriate assignment ranges between US$250,000 and US$1 million. While authors such as Griffin and Pustay (2002:583) and Black (1988:277) estimate the cost of a failed expatriate assignment at between US$40,000 and US$250,000 (these figures include the expatriates original training and moving expenses, as well as lost managerial productivity, but do not include the decreased performance of the foreign subsidiary itself). In addition, a failed assignment also has an indirect cost implication for a MNC as it can lead to damaged relations with the host country government, a diminished worldwide reputation of the MNC as well as negatively influencing the moral of employees in both the home and host country operations of an MNE (Chowanec Newstrom, 1991:66; Deresky, 2002:398). Harveys (1995:223) research is also supported by a study of Pricewaterhouse Coopers (PWC) ( 2000:80), who found that the partners of employees were the main reason for failed or unsuccessful international assignments in half the MNCs they surveyed. Hence there is a body of literature that highlights issues and challenges for organisations and expatriates. A particular issue is the need for organisations to pay attention to organisational support on expatriate and spousal adjustment (Caligiuri et al, 1999) which is not only related to general interactions adjustment but also to better performance on the job. 2.4.2 The Process of Adjustment As earlier stated by the author, research shows that if the expatriates spouse and/or family members are having trouble adjusting abroad, the expatriate will have problems as well, including poor job performance (Black Gregersen, 1991; Gaylord, 1979; Harvey,1985),which could result in a premature return from the overseas assignment or a poor performance upon completion of his/her assignment. As a result, several personal dimensions have also been found to impact a managers transition to an overseas assignment and when activities available at home cannot be found in the host country, there may be feelings of loneliness, isolation, and frustration, which contribute to culture shock and inhibit adjustment (Church, 1982). Hence, an international assignment intensifies the stress associated with the transfer of personnel as it involves an entire personal and professional life style modification that impacts the expatriate and other family members (Harvey, 1985:84) often causing a temporary emotional state called culture shock as seen in figure 2.4.2 Figure 2.4.2 The U-Curve Phase 1: Tourist Phase 2: Crisis Culture shock Æ’Â   May exit? Phase 3: Pulling up Phase 4: Adjustment Time Adjustment Source: H. De Cieri, P.J Dowling and K.F. Taylor, The Psychological Impact of Expatriate Relocation on Partners, International Journal on Human Resource Management, Vol. 2, No.3 (1991) p.30. Adjustment to a foreign culture is multifaceted, and individuals vary in terms of their reaction and coping behaviours and the adjustment curve (sometimes referred to as the U-Curve) is based on psychological reactions to the assignment and is helpful in demonstrating the typical phases that can be encountered during cultural adjustment (Dowling et al, 2008) . Phase 1 (tourist or honeymoon stage) commences with reactions prior to the assignment which can be a range of positive and negative emotions such as excitement, anxiety, fear of the unknown, or a sense of adventure which can lead to an upswing of mood . Then as the novelty wears off, realities of everyday life in the foreign location begin to intrude, homesickness sets in, and a downswing may commence which can create negative appraisals of the situation and the location leading to a period of crisis (phase 2).This phase can be a critical time, and how the individual copes with the psychological adjustment has an important outcome in terms of success or failure. Once past this crisis point, as the expatriate comes to terms with the demands of the new environment, there is a pulling up (phase 3) resulting in an adjustment (phase 4) to the new environment (Dowling et al, 2008). In recent studies (Mendenhall and Oddou 1985; Black 1988; Black and Gregersen 1991;Black, Mendenhall and Oddou 1991; McEvoy and Parker 1995), adjustment is seen as a multi-faceted phenomenon with three major dimensions that are addressed and empirically tested: adjustment to the general environment, referring to the general psychological comfort involving aspects such as living conditions, weather or food; adjustment to the work situation, referring to the psychological comfort with culture specific work values and standards; and adjustment to interacting with host nationals, focusing on the comfort with different communication styles in the host setting. Also, adjustment pertaining to expatriates can be broken down into anticipatory, psychological, environmental/ (socio) cultural, organisational, interaction and personal change adjustment (Black et al, 1991,) and Shaffer et al, (1999) has also identified job factors, organisational factors, personal factors, non-work factors and individual factors as significant to expatriate adjustment. 2.5.1 Definition Of Culture According to Hickson and Pugh (1995), national culture shapes everything. National culture influences management practices like structure, strategy and human resources systems; and the effective transfer of management structures and processes relies on the ability to recognise their inherent assumptions and compare them with the cultural assumptions of the potential host country recipient. (Schneider and Barsoux, 2003). Over the years, culture has been defined in different ways by various writers. Culture was first defined in 1871 by Tylor (Hall,1980: 20) as the complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, custom and any other capabilities and habit acquired by man as a member of society while Hofstede (2001) also defines culture as the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another . At the organizational level, Schein (1985:9) also provides a definition of culture drawn from the framework developed by Kluckholn and Strodtbeck (1961) in (Schneider and Barsoux ( 2003): a pattern of basic assumptions-invented, discovered, or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration-that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to those problems Values, behaviour and beliefs are different across cultures and their importance to those cultures should not be underestimated. Whether engaging in strategic alliances, setting up operations abroad or attracting the local market, companies need to discover how culture can be harnessed to drive business forward (Schneider and Barsoux, 2003). 2.5.2 Cultural Adaptation and Knowledge When expatriates are familiar with the culture, language, and customs of headquarters, it can facilitate the transfer of corporate culture between headquarters and their subsidiaries, enhancing communication and coordination (Boyacigiller,1991; Rosenzweig and Singh, 1991) and can also provide technical and managerial skills that may not be immediately available at the local level. However, expatriates are not likely to be motivated to engage in active participation in a new environment if they are uncertain as to what an appropriate behaviour is, as such contacts with host nationals could be threatening and increase anxiety (Stephan and Stephan, 1992). Hence, the more information received regarding local behaviours, the more easily the expatriate can adopt culturally appropriate behaviour and thus facilitate the adjustment process. Expatriates may learn the host culture indirectly prior to direct contact with the host society through pre departure cross cultural training which can be an effective way of gaining cultural knowledge about the host culture (Black, Mendenhall and Oddou, 1991) in order to reduce uncertainty prior to active participation. Expatriate pre departure knowledge can also contribute to both work and general adjustment overseas (Black, 1988) when such knowledge includes information about the transition which can reduce many of the uncertainties associated with the new role. Work adjustment here includes the extent to which the expatriate is able to adjust to the level of responsibility associated with the assignment as well as his or her pay schedule while adjustment to the general environment refers to the individuals ability to adjust to non-work factors such as housing conditions and health facilities (Black, 1988). Clarke Hammer (1995) also observed that interpersonal skills, which are similar to social orientation, tended to facilitate cross cultural adjustment since social skills appear to be critical to the managers ability to complete tasks and to establish and maintain effective intercultural relationships, all of which assist in the cultural adjustment of the expatriate and his or her family. However, cultural knowledge acquired in ones culture of origin may be inadequate and subject to modifications as one encounter the new environment since cultural knowledge obtained by indirect learning such as through contact with mass media can be superficial and subject to misinterpretation compared to the knowledge obtained by direct contacts with the host society (Lee, 2006; Weimann, 1984). Also, previous international experience was repeatedly found not to predict expatriate and spousal general adjustment during expatriation (Black, 1988; Black Gregersen. 1991b; Black Stephens, 1989) which suggests that many aspects of overseas experience are not generalized from one assignment location to another meaning that expatriate managers are not able to transfer their learning concerning adjustment in one country to another. 2.5.3 The Impact of Training on Cultural Adaptation Cultural adaptation is a social cognitive process that reduces uncertainty and an affective process that reduces anxiety. The outcomes of cultural adaptation include psychological well being and satisfaction as well as social competence (Gao and Gudykunst, 1990; Ward and Kennedy, 1992). Failure to adjust successfully may lead to negative consequences such as lowered mental health status, feelings of marginality and alienation, heightened psychosomatic systems and identity confusion (Berry et al; 1987). For expatriates unfamiliar with the customs, cultures, and work habits of the local people, training may be critical to the outcome of overseas assignments since culture shock experienced by people in new and different cultures which reduces the ability to function in a cultural setting because of the perceived discrepancy between an individuals expectations of how events should proceed and how they actually occur (Black et al. 1992) would be reduced immensely. With complete adjustment, individuals not only accept the customs of the new culture as another way of living but also may actually begin to enjoy them or at least terminate the projection of discomfort onto the host culture (Oberg, 1960). Thus, successful cultural adaptation can be conceptualized as an individuals general satisfaction with ones personal situation in the host country (Gudykunst and Hammer, 1983; Torbiorn, 1982). 2.6.1 Factors Affecting Expatriates Cross-Cultural Adjustment Given the multidimensional conceptualization of culture ( Hofstede, 2001) and strong empirical support (Shaffer et al. 1999), the cultural adjustment of expatriates is essential. Following this multi-faceted approach, it appears that some expatriates may be well adjusted to one dimension but at the same time poorly adjusted to another. For example they may adapt themselves to their new work situation in a foreign country but feel uncomfortable in interacting with locals. Without an understanding of the host culture in such a situation, the expatriate is likely to face some difficulty during the his/her assignment. According to Fontaine (1997:631), the success of international assignments could be ensured if effective preparation, support, and training were provided to the expatriate and their tailing families. Sievers (1998:9), suggests that the majority of MNCs do not have formal policies to address the needs of their expatriates families, hence, it is imperative those MNCs develop comprehensive, flexible and interactive programmes specifically for spouses and children. 2.6.2 Cultural Training Training is defined as the process of altering employee behaviour and attitudes to increase the probability of goal attainment (Hodgetts Kuratko, 1991) thereby reducing expatriates perceived need to adjust (Black et al.1992; Deshpande Viswesvaran, 1991; Earley, 1987).It has frequently been argued that training is the litmus test of human resource management (Keep, 1989) since the pivotal element of a system is designed to harness the talent of those it employs in ensuring that employees are developed for their roles (Redman and Wilkinson, 2008). Few of the training programmes of organisations are available to the public (Morris and Robie, 2001). As a consequence, empirical support on different training methods remains scarce. Organisations develop their own specific training programs or subcontract them to specialist trainers in view of the perceived needs of their business and managers, but cultural views differ on how training is provided, by whom and for what purpose (Schneider and Barsoux, 2003).Training aims to improve employees current work skills and behaviour, whereas development aims to increase abilities in relation to some future position or job (Dowling et al, 2008) Failed or ineffective intercultural adjustments may be avoided by utilizing effective training to prepare expatria