Nature of Sociological Theory

Nature of Sociological Theory THE NATURE OF SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY OKUMAGBA, OGHENERO PAUL, FAYEYE, J.O.   EJECHI, EUCHARIA SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY DEFINITION AND MEANINGS Different people see Sociological theory in different ways. Different people have regarded different aspects of sociology as theory and students are also involved because their works are based on theories. How do we define a theory? In other to give an answer to this question, we must have some definition which must help us in this task. Mennell, S. (1972) distinguished what a theory should be and what by convention is named Sociological theory. He started by saying that sociology theory in some cases is not sociological theory. What this means is that, it deals in most cases with a body of ideas attached to theory, and this is not always their in the strict Sense of it. For Mennel a real sociological theory is formalized and ultimately testable explanations which are accumulated to a large extent in the ordinary process of Sociology Research i.e. sociological theory must be related to Sociological Research. Our theories may only try to explain limited and specific properties of reality. They may belong to some or all area of sociology such as Urban sociology, Sociology of the Family, Political sociology etc. i.e. they may only cover an aspect of sociology and not all. They may be what R.K. Merton calls MIDDLE RANGE THEORIES, i.e. theories that are interested in specific or limited areas e.g Social roles. Mennel goes on to ask the question, what is social theory in the customary sense. Sociological theory is a general collection to topics. it also tends to include the discussion of Some Epistemological issues such as what is science, what is sociological theory. Is it a science? Etc. this is what Stephen Mennel refers to as META THEORY. There is another category which Mennel calls PARA-THEORY. He got this from the works of Ralph Dorhendorf. He defines it as all statement before, around and after Sociological theory which are capable of empirical test themselves but are geared towards theories, We also wasn’t to distinguish this type of theory from what is known a s BASK THEORY. It does not necessary have to be scientifically validated, i.e. it does not contain empirical components as it basis. Although most of the great Sociologists may have developed theory without going on to test them. They ore more or less based on their experience or from reading. Some writers have called the above type GRAND THEORY. This theory is concerned with providing a scheme that can be used to explain the empirical data of research. This type of theory depends on interrelated construct, concepts, prepositions, scientific statements etc. that presents a systematic view of phenomenon by specifying relationship among variables with the purpose of explaining and predicting phenomenon. This type of their is based on data collected from society and it is usually used in explaining certain segments of social reality. We may s ay that Grand theory is based on abstractive ideologies, patterns and principles which undering given nature and social world order i.e. it is global scheme. Ware as empirically based theory concentrates on formulating, generalizing from specific data in other to explain phenomenon. We may say at this point, that the two seems necessary in order to provide a concueate analysis of social reality. However, they may not be isolated from eac h. other. Grand theory tends to be constructed on abstract terms and we may question what process of abstraction does it given to the understanding of the whole social process. Empirically. based theory is derived solely from the data collected from social processes. For Goode and Hatt:†¦. a theory states a logical relationship between facts. From this theory other prepositions can be deduced that should be true, if the first relationship holds. These d educed propositions are hypotheses. To them, and to many others as well, a hypothesis is a minor theory. it â€Å"states what† were looking for† and â€Å"Leads to an empiritical test†. It is a proposition capable to empirical verification but not yet verified. It is apparent at there is more then a semblance of circularity in the reasoning of those who discuss the relationship between a theory and a hypothesis. It is commonly claimed that all â€Å"scientific† hypotheses arc- derivations from empirically supportable theory. It is also typically asserted that every theory had its beginnings in on hypothesis. Hence, one mans hypothesis may be another’s theory. It all depends on the aim and ingenuity of the investigator. Scientific theories are logical systems of propositions which attempt to account for why phenomena ore the way they are and predict their behaviour. Theories are built of data generated, for example Mertonian paradigms and sociological perspectives are synonymous. The direct data generation and theorizing efforts to some aspects of the social world. Thus one can produce specific theories from a particular perspectives e.g. the theory of segmenting opposition and Merton’s social structure and anomie theory fall within the functional perspective. A theory can also be seen as a logically consistent statement of causal laws. Causal laws ore statements of regularities in concomitant occurrences between antecedents and events. The question we should be asking ourselves is, Are we limited by the process of data collection? We have to have a facilitating relationship between the two. Theories which are based on empirical footing helps to direct the grand theory and provides concrete d ata for the grand theory and helps the researcher develop a conceptual framework. The word ‘theory’ derives its meanings and usage from the user. To call a statement a theory is sometimes intended to increase its value by suggesting that it goes beyond ‘mere facts’ e.g when a person says I hove a theory about James he means that he cannot be deceived by him. But sometimes, the word theory as clearly used to reduce the value of a speculative idea by denying it a close connection with reality. In this sense it is often asserted â€Å"tings are all right in theory† but not in practice. Theories would have no value if they did not go beyond facts. Facts are nothing more than statements which we believe to bear truth about particular events which have occurred. Theories ore not meant to be about particular events but about the whole categories of events, it is generally said that Theories or some theories are nothing but general facts. A statement general fact would be either a shorthand or number of statements of the same kind or type, a general statements of the characteristics of a type of events. It is true that all theories go beyond facts; however not all statement which go beyond facts are theories. For example if say that, the colonial masters colonized Nigeria, and established a foreign culture that would otherwise not have developed. I am going beyond facts, but no one can know what culture would have developed if there had been no Colonization in the first instance. However, one can guess, and ones guess is an hypothesis. This guess is not a theory; because it stated something about particular events or particular complexes or events but it states nothing in general about the characteristics of colonial domination. To be testable this theory would have to state the kind of evidence that could be treated as refuting it. Instances of species which have survived being w c-Il adapted to particular environment or instances of Species which were well adapted to a particular environment but which had not survived. In the final analysis, the criterion of a adaptability is the capacity for survival 1.e. One does not really know how adoptable a species is until one has already observed its Capacity for survival. The fact that such a theory is not strictly testable does no mean that it has little value. Its values lies in directing inquiries of the students of evolution In conjunction other theories, some of which are highly testable it has helped evolutionary biologists to explain a great deal. Its own role is programmatic, it says if you are making enquires of this kind, makes a species more or less adaptable table in a particular environment This has proved useful. This example removed the assumption that if is only the social sciences attempt to be satisfied or utilize theories which ore not strictly testable. TYPES OF THEORY Cohen; (1968) in his book Modern Social Theory out lined four broad types of theories and they are as follows: Analytical Theory Normative Theory Metaphysical theory Scientific theory ANALYTICAL THEORY These are like theories of mathematics or logic which may state nothing about the real world but consist of some sets of axiomatic statements which are true by definition and from which other statements ore derived for example Adam Smith’s their on human economy which stress that people tend to maximize their gains while minimizing their losses. NORMATIVE THEORY These theory elaborates a set of ideal state of which one may aspire for example, ideologist fall within this category Normative theories are subjective in the sense that they deal with the ideal or what ought to be rather than what is. METAPHYSICCAL THEORY These are theories which are beyond the senses in other words, they have no empirical foundation. A good example is Darwin’s theory on Evolution of man and Malthusian’s theory of population. SCIENTIFIC THEORIES This is ideally a universal empirical statement which exacts a causal connection between two or more variables (or types of events). At this simplest, it has this form e.g. whenever x occurs they Y occur X = Y. Scientific theories are universal because it state something about the condition under which some events or types of events always occur If theories go beyond facts, they must have a connection with reality. Hence no experience of reality is worth recording, or could be recorded if it is not for theories. The most elementary theories, which we use a re embedded in our language. All language must use certain universal, categories; and to use a universal category is in effect to use a theory. If for example It says’ that ‘James is a deviant presume certain universal characteristics associated with deviance, as opposed to conformity. Without universal categories there will he no communication, without communication there will be no culture, no society, no science, no technology, no shored experience of die world of reality. Theoretical consideration end theoretical concepts, implicit or explicit have an essential rule in shaping the direction of research, in direction observation an and in guiding description itself, For a theory to be used wisely with sharp awareness, awareness users must have the knowledge of its nature and of its varieties. We need to know its concepts and diverse terminological forms they take. We should be familiar with the history of sociological theoretical endeavours with its changing emphasis, its successes and failure, and its promise for the future, These in themselves constitute the subject matter of the studying of sociological theories. SOCIOLOGICAL THEORYAND SOCIAL ORDER Theory is a set of prepositions complying ideally with the following conditions; The propositions must be put in terms of exactly defined concepts. They must be consistent with one another. They must be such that from them the existing generalization could be deductively derived. They must be fruitful i.e. show the way to further observation and generalizations were increasing the scope of knowledge. From the foregoing, sociological theory can be understood in the sense in which the word theory is used in other sciences. Hence it is; ‘a structure of systematically organized law like propositions about society that con be supported by evidence. The aim a sociological theory from the foregoing is explanation that goes beyond description and systematic definition (or taxonomy). Some characteristics of sociological theory. It is needful to odd that many sociological theories do not meet the ideal criteria of science (i.e. universality, empruism, and causality). CHARACTERIST1C OF SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY Theories are thoughts and ideas used to explain particular Social phenomenon or situations in society. It is a set of systematically relatered propositions a imed at explaining a particular situation. They are thoughts, ideas, or conceptual schemes used to solve societal problems. A theory is good and useful when it is able to solve problems successfully. Sociological theories attempts to explain and investigate problems, issues or events within the context of observable social phenomenon, they attempt to offer scientific and theoretical explanation which on the basis of the past have immediate applicability and are also capable of application to similar problems in the future. All theories attempt more than anything also the question â€Å"Why†. All contemporary sociological theories are selective in their analysis of social phenomenon. No one theory con interest or explain a total social phenomenon (such as the Grand Theory by TALCOTT PARSONS and middle range theories by ROBERT K. MERTON) for example, DEMOGRAPHISM as a sociological perspective is concerned with man’s various responses caused by increase in population. Then TECHNOLOG1SM emphasizes the effect of technology on man and social organization, while ECOLOGISM emphasizes the influence of non human environmental on human behaviour. Contemporary sociological theories must be empirically grounded. They are not merely thoughts or speculations. They are not â€Å"armed chair theories† but are based on observable facts that can be subjected to scientific observation and analysis. They are thoughts backed by verified fact or knowledge. Sociological theories tends to state scietific and observable relationships between variables usually between the dependent and independent variables. independent Variable -independent Variable X Y All sociological theories attempts to solve the problem of order in the society, All contemporary sociological theories deal with social phenomenon that are either imposed or generated by the individuals and these imposed or generated phenomena must either be subjective or objective. Finally, any sociological theory that does not fall into these set of categories is not qualified to be called a sociological theory. FUNCTIONS OF SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES Theories in any discipline have certain function which they perform in investigation info societal problems, It extends the Scope of the original empirical findings by showing the interrelationship between various variables. It provides facts for the accumulation of both theory and research findings. If increase the fruitfulness of research through the successive exploration of the implicajiohs of research findings. lt introduces a ground for the predictions. It entails precision which is derivable from test-ability or verification The importance of precision in theory was stated by R.K, Merton when he wrote those theories which admits a precise precision confirmed by observation taken on strategic importance since they provide an initial basis for choice between competing hypothesis. THE CENTRAL PROBLEMS OF SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY AND SOCIAL ORDER The Problems of Order To take the position that sociological theory centers around the problem of social order may result into laying criticism of conservation ideological bias. To those who sees conflict, they will assume that the position presents or emphasizes order and affirms its desirability. It is certain that people in most societies desire order, they may not accept any kind of order at all cost. The fact that order is desired by many does not justify its central position in sociological theory. When order is presented as being at the centre of sociological theory it is done so because of the following Order is itself something positive, and its opposites only conceivable in terms of it. The very idea of human society presupposes order. The existence of social order is problematic and cannot be taken for grated. The investigation of the problem of order illuminates (or shows) the nature of disorder in its various aspects.

Source of the Legend of Dracula Essay -- Legends

Dracula Reconsidered Background: The legend of Dracula is a renowned tale told all over the world. Created by Irish writer, Bram Stoker, the story was inspired by the Romanian ruler, Vlad Dracul. The story teller was a Caucasian 49-year-old male. He was born and raised in Bucharest, Romania and was quite familiar with the past history of and current events in the country. He identified with the Romanian orthodox religion. The Story: â€Å"Everyone knows the story of Dracula. [Walks around the table, moves his hands as he speaks.] He has been depicted in novels, movies, and paintings. In Romania, this story is told from generation to generation and it had become an integral part of our culture. However, not many people know the true origins of Dracula. [Pauses, tone changes, has a displeased look on his face, moves toward a chair and sits down.] This legend angers me since it is a figment of popular culture and gives a bad name to our Romanian society. It is unfair, and its main purpose is to promote the tourism of our nation. It was created by an Irish man. [Pauses, thinks.] I think he was Irish. I can’t recall his name right now. Nevertheless, this man was quite misinformed and he just created this legend out of thin air. He was obsessed with phantoms, castles, and the supernatural. [Points up to the ceiling and gazes outside towards the sky.] He transformed the reality of Vlad Tepes into a silly legend. Let me give you a history of Vlad Tepes, in order for you to understand the background behind the story. In the 1400s, Romania was split into three provinces, Wallachia, Transylvania, and Moldova. [Puts three fingers in the air.] Vlad was born in a castle in Sighisoara in Transylvania. He be... ...The teller used his hands a lot to subtly express his inner emotions. He also tried to show the actions of a vampire attack, but it wasn’t very effective, since there were no props and I had to use my imagination to understand. The storyteller performance embodied his annoyance with the myth’s mischaracterization, in his view, of Vlad Dracul, which shows the social implication of the story. The ability to believe easily without questioning the circumstances is a negative characteristic of our culture. Works Cited Leblanc, Benjamin H. â€Å"Vlad Dracula: An Intriguing Figure in the Fifteenth Century.† Journal of the Dark. 13 Oct. 2004 http://members.aol.com/johnfranc/drac05.htm. Porter, Ray. â€Å"The Historical Dracula.† 13 Oct. 2004. http://www.eskimo.com/~mwirkk/castle/vlad/vladhist.html. Vamp Club. 13 Oct. 2004. http://www.vampclub.com/index.htm.

Pursuit of Happiness Will Smith Speech

The Journey movie I chose to talk about is The Pursuit of Happyness. It is an inner journey. The movie starts off showing the scenery – the Golden Gate Bridge, an American flag and the crowded busy street full of business people and the homeless. The camera then focuses on Chris Gardener and his son Christopher. Chris says throughout the movie the 6 stages of his life. It starts off with ‘Riding the bus'. In ‘Riding the bus’ we learn that he lives in an apartment with his partner Glenda and son and that he sells portable bone density scanners to make a living, however they are quite hard to sell as they are seen as unnecessary – a luxury item. We also find out that his wife works very long and hard hours at a factory to support the family. One day he walks down the street and sees a really rich guy and asks him what he does for a living. The rich man says that he is a stockbroker and that you don’t need to have gone to college to be one – all you need is good maths and people skills. Chris then aspires to be a stockbroker as he has those skills and mainly because â€Å"they all looked so damn happy. † Stage 2 is ‘Being stupid’. In this stage he is about to go into Dean Witter to apply for a stockbroker internship but realises he doesn’t look professional with his big heavy scanner so he asks a busker to look after it. However the busker runs away stealing his scanner after he went inside. He then gets told that he doesn’t have a great shot at the job as he has no further education, there are bucket loads of applicants and only 20 people get accepted into the internship but only 1 gets the job after 6 months. He then gets very determined to keep on trying to show them why he should get picked despite the weakness on his application. The next stage ‘Running’ starts off with Chris spotting the busker with his stolen scanner and chasing her down. He manages to get it back however his wife is not very pleased as then they now have more to sell – she was getting very stressed and upset. Next he goes to Dean Witter and waits outside the building for Jay Twissel to come out so he can try to convince him to let him have an internship. He then shares a taxi with him but Jay was very distracted trying to do the ‘impossible’ new rubix cube. Chris then shows him how he can solve the rubix cube and Jay is shocked and starts to reconsider Chris. Jay then gets out of the taxi leaving Chris to pay the fare, however Chris does not have enough money on him so he does a runner at the traffic lights. The taxi driver chases him so Chris quickly jumped on a train however the scanner he was carrying got stuck on the platform. Glenda then decides to leave Chris and take Christopher with her. Chris then thinks about how the Declaration talks about the pursuit of happiness. But wonders how did the man writing know that happiness is something you need to pursue. That night he then gets a call from Jay Twissel for an interview for the internship at 10am in a couple of days. He then sees Glenda and tells her that Christopher is to move in with him. The next day his landlord tells him that he was getting evicted but could stay one more week if he painted the place. Chris then spends the day painting but is interrupted by the police knocking on his door taking him down the station as he had one too many parking tickets he hadn’t paid. He is told he had to stay at the station till 9:30am the next day as the cheque has to be processed. He then calls Glenda to pick Christopher up from day care and keep him for the night. He is forced to run to the interview at 10am from the station in his bad clothes covered in paint. He still just manages to pull off a great interview but is told the internship has no salary. He then figures he may be able to just get by if he sells the rest of his scanners. Glenda lets Christopher permanently stay with Chris as she knows how much Chris loves him and that he will look after Christopher. Glenda then leaves to New York to work at her friend’s restaurant. Chris and Christopher have to leave their apartment and stay at a cheap motel across the road. Stage 4 is ‘Internship’ and yes Chris got it and now starts his 6month internship. He gets told that generally the one who brings in the most money for the company gets hired. He starts off as very unappreciated as he was the one who was always asked to buy coffee and donuts for his bosses. He is also disadvantaged, as he has to leave the office at 4pm to pick up Christopher when everyone else stays back till 7pm. Later on he manages to get a meeting with Walter Ribbon that if it goes well he could get the company lots of money but he is forced to run an errand for his boss, which consequently makes him miss his interview with Walter. The next day he goes to Walter’s house to apologise for missing the meeting. Walter invites him and Christopher to the NFL game. He tries to convince Walter to come to Dean Witter but Walter says no but Chris meets plenty of other people interested in Dean Witter. Chris had now sold all his scanners after 4 months, he felt like things were going okay. Until he reaches the 5th stage of his life – ‘Paying taxes’. The government had sent him a letter saying that he was way overdue in paying his taxes and that they had taken the money he owed out of his bank account only leaving him with $21. 33 left. He takes Christopher to the park when he spots a man with his machine that he had left on the station. He manages to get it back and goes straight away to find someone to buy it. He manages to find a doctor who says he will buy it but the scanner was not working anymore. He and Christopher then go home to find all their belongings outside – they had been evicted. They end up having to stay the night in the train station bathroom. The next night they find a homeless shelter to stay at. However the night after that all the rooms were full so they spend the night on the train while Christopher sleeps and Chris tries to fix his scanner. He realises that it may work if he buys some new parts. The next night they get a bed at the shelter and Chris manages to fix the scanner after he replaces the parts. He then sells the machine and gets $250 so they are able to afford a hotel for the night. The next morning he gets told he got the well-paid job! He is ecstatic and happy. Which takes us to the final stage – ‘Happiness’. He is so joyous that he runs to Christopher’s day care and picks him up early. The camera the focuses on Chris and Christopher walking down an empty street. They appear very happy and the camera also shows the great relationship that they have with each other. The movie finishes with telling us how Chris went, as the movie was based on a true story. We are told that after Dean Witter Chris went on to found the investment firm Gardener Rich in 1987. In 2006 Chris sold a minority stake in his brokerage firm in a multi-million dollar deal. Journey through an important phase of Chris’ life. Journey looking to move to somewhere else whether emotional or physical. Obstacles, challenges and barriers on his journey. Guy in red car sparks his dream to be a stockbroker. Takes risks accepting the internship. Christopher’s journey moving home around and around – following his dad. Feelings shown. Chris was very prepared to go on the journey to get to his goal, his destination – his dream job of a stockbroker. Chris had a strong vision of where he wanted to be. A journey is a passage or progress from one stage to another. Story of Chris in his pursuit of happiness. Chris was very motivated. Incredible twists and turns and obstacles on his journey. ACTUAL SPEECH The Journey movie I chose to talk about is The Pursuit of Happyness. The dictionary defines journey as a passage or progress from one stage to another. This journey is about an important phase of Chris’ life – it is about Chris’ pursuit of happiness. Chris is a guy who is struggling to make ends meet and he and his wife are living in a situation where money is a major stress in their life. For a living he sells portable bone density scanners which hospitals find unnecessary and see a luxury item. He sees what he wants to do, what he wants to become – a stockbroker. The spark of his dream is when he saw a guy smiling driving a Ferrari and he asks him what he does for a job. The guy then says he is a stockbroker and that you don’t need to have gone to college to be one – all you need is good maths and people skills. He then sets out on his journey in pursuit of a dream that comes from a sudden desire. Chris sets out very determined to get that dream job of his. He makes it in the end but his journey is filled with numerous barriers and roadblocks and moments where you feel like he could easily quit and other times where you feel like circumstances might completely overwhelm him because he ends up homeless and left to raise his son alone. There are multiple times where you feel like no matter what he does you feel like he isn’t going to get there despite his best efforts. He sets out on his journey knowing very little – he takes many risks. He faces many obstacles throughout the movie some being: being kept in jail for the night for not paying his parking tickets, most of his money being taken away for not paying taxes leaving him with $21. 33, some of his scanners being stolen and not in working condition when found, being very unappreciated by his boss, his wife leaving him to raise his son alone and getting evicted which made Chris and his son homeless. To get the stockbroker job he had to not only overcome these hurdles but had to get chosen to get the job out of 20 people after a 6 month unpaid internship. The amazing thing is that in the end he overcomes all these obstacles and gets the job. In the end we are told that after his stockbroking job at Dean Witter Chris went on to found the investment firm Gardener Rich in 1987 and in 2006 Chris sold a minority stake in his brokerage firm in a multi-million dollar deal. Even more amazing, the movie is based on a true story. This movie shows us that if we set our mind to something and are very determined we will get there in the end.

How Ecology Is Being Affected by Climate Change - 892 Words

In the world today their has been a surge of scientific, political and economical forces hurdling to prove and disprove the existence of global climate change. I assert that the symptoms that our planet is suffering are the truest indications to justify worrying about our collective future on this land; which I will present in terms of how the ecology is being effected by global climate change. In an article reporting the findings of a study conducted in Israel by Tarryn Schuldiner-Harpaz and Moshe Coll entitled Effects of Global Warming on Predatory Bugs Supported by Data Across Geographic and Seasonal Climatic Gradients the authors state, [The] average global surface temperature... has risen by approximately 0.75 [degrees Celsius] during the past 100 years (1906–2005)... average temperatures rose by approximately 0.13 [degrees Celsius] per decade... And indicated that the majority of the change had occurred between 1956 through 2005 (Schuldiner-Harpaz and Coll). The study m easured the effects of climate change on various species of insects in the area of and surrounding Israel. After collecting records of the climate gradients, annual temperature records, insect species samples of the region and comparing it to samples of current species morphology (the study of an organisms structure and form) how continuous change in climate effects said insects, and multiple regions annual temperatures records, they found that while some species were able to adapt to theShow MoreRelatedEarth, Empathy, and Ecofeminism: A New Approach to Motivating Change644 Words   |  3 PagesWe are living in a world that is affected more and more each day by the issue of global climate change. It has been scientifically proven that human action greatly contribute to this issue. The problem that arises from this knowledge is that the majority of people who are most impacted by climate change are not the largest contributors to this phenomenon. 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